Impact of ‘Division by Zero’ in Einstein’s Static Universe and Newton’s Equations in Classical Mechanics.
Ajay Sharma
physicsajay@yahoo.com
Community Science Centre. Post Box 107 Directorate of Education Shimla 171001 India
Key Words Aristotle, Universe, Einstein, Newton
Abstract
Aristotle (384-322BC) and other ancient philosophers believed that force is always required for movement of body
but no equation was formulated for such perception in antiquity. Galileo (1664-1727) argued against the idea and
maintained that under specified hypothetical conditions body can move with uniform velocity without any force (if
once set in motion). Newton (1642-1727) formulated equation F = ma, for Galileo’s hypothesis. In definition of
inertial mass (m = F/a), the denominator acceleration becomes zero under some conditions. The similar was
situation (division by zero) with Einstein’s model of Static Universe involving Cosmological Constant, which was
then purposely withdrawn by Einstein. Exactly similar is the situation in case of inertial mass, the acceleration (a)
becomes zero when velocity is uniform. The division by zero in Einstein’s equations lead to acceptance of
doctrine of Expanding Universe, similarly division by zero Second Law of Motion ( m = F/a) lead to equation of
force which supports the perception of force and motion in pre-Galileo’s or Aristotle’s days.
1.0 Einstein’s equation of Static Universe and Newton’s equation of inertial mass (Second Law of Motion)
involve division by zero.
Einstein (1879-1955) in 1917 in his research paper proposed a model of Static Universe introduced Cosmological
Constant. Alexander Freidman a Russian cosmologist after five years found that under certain condition Einstein’s
equation involve division by zero, which is not permissible. George Gamow (1904-1968) Russian-born American
nuclear physicist and cosmologist remarked that "it is well known to students of high school algebra" that division
by zero is not valid; and Einstein admitted it as the biggest blunder of his life [1].
Contrary to prevalent views continuing over nearly 2,000 years, Galileo argued that in case all the resistive forces
(atmospheric, frictional and gravitational etc.) are precisely eliminated (true under hypothetical conditions only)
then body once set in motion will maintain its state of perpetual uniform motion ( if body once set in motion). It
must be noted that nothing was known about Gravitation (theoretically this force extends up to infinity) in Galileo’s
time otherwise his hypothesis may have been different. Galileo also developed concept of acceleration and
formulated various kinematical equations for uniformly accelerated motion, thus acceleration was the main term in
his interpretation. These equations were later obtained by method of calculus (discovered independently and
simultaneously by Leibnitz and Newton) also, using concept of constant acceleration.
Taking Galileo’s hypothesis as a basis Newton formulated Second law of motion or Axiom II as quoted in Book I
of the Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis in Latin ( first translation in English by done Andrew
Motte, 1729, two years after death of Newton) as
The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in
the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.
Thus Newton provided the mathematical basis for Galileo’s perception of uniformly accelerated motion [2, 3]. The
Second Law is called a basic law of motion as the First Law of motion can be obtained from it; and it defines
inertial mass (m) as ratio of net force (F) and acceleration (a) i.e.
m = F/a. = Ft / (v-u) (1)
where u is initial, v is final velocity and t is time. Then it was established that inertial and gravitational masses are
equivalent. The physical quantity acceleration was defined by Galileo before Newton (as the rate of change of
velocity); the denominator of Eq. (1) is often written as in disguised form i.e. as ‘a’ rather than in terms of
difference in velocities (v-u). Thus acceleration becomes zero if body moves with inform velocity or is at rest. Thus
the situation is precisely similar in Einstein’s Static Universe and Newton’s Second law of motion, regarding
occurrence of division by zero, in equations.
The second law is the real law of motion [3] as first law can be obtained from it. Purposely we quote Resnick and
Halliday [3] as if F =0, then a =0.
In other words if net force on body is zero, then acceleration of body is also zero. Therefore in absence of
impressed or resultant force (F=0) the body will move with constant velocity (a=0) or remains at rest, which is first
law of motion. Now what is the value of inertial mass under this condition (F = 0, a = 0) i.e. when second law of
motion reduces to the first law. Obviously undefined
M = F /a = 0/0.
It is completely meaningless, in this case not only denominator but numerator also becomes zero. It implies that
under this condition (i.e. when Newton’s second law of motion reduces to first law), the Eq. (1) i.e. m = F/a is not
applicable as it gives value of mass (has definite dimensions and units of mass) as undefined. In this case F =ma
implies 0 = 0, which is without dimensions, units and have zero magnitude; hence gives no physical information
which is inherent characteristic or prerequisite of equation [3, 4].
2.0 Effects of division by zero in classical mechanics
Thus there is a precise similarity between Einstein’s equations regarding Static Universe and Newton’s laws of
motion (calculation of inertial mass), as far as division by zero is concerned. Realizing the limitations Einstein
withdrew his arguments in 1931 and theory of expanding universe was accepted, keeping aside the theory of
static universe. Likewise in view of this limitation of F =ma another equation of force has been proposed by author
[5] in as
F =A m(u+v)S/t (2)
where, F is net or resultant or impressed force which causes displacement S is distance traveled. And additional
term ‘A’, which is used to remove the sign of proportionality, has nature like Hubble’s constant or like coefficient of
thermal conductivity or coefficient of viscosity etc). Their magnitudes are determined experimentally e.g. Hubble’s
constant {50 to 80 kilometres per second-Mega parsec (Mpc)} or coefficient of viscosity (1.05× 10-3 poise to 19.2×
10-6 poise) or co-efficient of thermal conductivity (0.02Wm-1K
-1 to 400 Wm-1K
-1)
.
The interpretation of Eq. (2) is revival of concepts or perceptions of force propagated by Aristotle and others for
system in which resistive forces are present i.e. practical system. It consistent with existent concepts in antiquity,
Eq. (2) implies that force is always required for movement of body, in this case resistive force ( regarded as null
by Galileo for hypothetical system) is the main factor. This doctrine was taught for over two thousand years or
more, as it too found immediate experimental support, and have even now in countless cases. Galileo put forth
that in a medium devoid of resistive forces (frictional, atmospheric and gravitation), body once set in motion will
keep on moving with uniform velocity. Thus impact of concept of "division by zero" has not only resulted in
adopting the theory of Expanding Universe but in this case it also revives of pre-Galilean of Aristotelian perception
of motion of bodies on the basis of facts and logic.
The most practical aspect of this interpretation is that we should formulate a mathematical basis for practical or
most abundant cases; then interpretation must be provided for hypothetical system in limiting cases. For example,
we formulate an equation of force for systems most abundantly available in daily life i.e. when gravitational,
frictional and atmospheric forces etc are present. Then the same equation ( mathematical basis) should be used
to explain the hypothetical cases ( when gravitational, frictional and atmospheric forces etc are present). However
Galileo and Newton has established different formulations, they formulated mathematical basis for hypothetical
system ( devoid of gravitational, frictional and atmospheric forces etc)
Reference.
1. Gamow, G., My World Line (Viking, New York). p 44, 1970
2. Weinstock, R. American Jourmal pf physics 29 (10), 698-702 (1961).
3. Resnick, R. and D. Halliday, Physics Part I (Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi) Forty Second reprint 2, 45-46,
81-87
4. McNish A.G, Physics Today, Dimensions, Units, and Standards, 19-25, April 1957
5. A Sharma, Acta Ciencia Indica, Vol. XXXV P, No, 181 (1999) http://gsjournal.net/Science-Journals/Research%20Papers-Relativity%20Theory/Download/2084
Ajay Sharma
physicsajay@yahoo.com
Community Science Centre. Post Box 107 Directorate of Education Shimla 171001 India
Key Words Aristotle, Universe, Einstein, Newton
Abstract
Aristotle (384-322BC) and other ancient philosophers believed that force is always required for movement of body
but no equation was formulated for such perception in antiquity. Galileo (1664-1727) argued against the idea and
maintained that under specified hypothetical conditions body can move with uniform velocity without any force (if
once set in motion). Newton (1642-1727) formulated equation F = ma, for Galileo’s hypothesis. In definition of
inertial mass (m = F/a), the denominator acceleration becomes zero under some conditions. The similar was
situation (division by zero) with Einstein’s model of Static Universe involving Cosmological Constant, which was
then purposely withdrawn by Einstein. Exactly similar is the situation in case of inertial mass, the acceleration (a)
becomes zero when velocity is uniform. The division by zero in Einstein’s equations lead to acceptance of
doctrine of Expanding Universe, similarly division by zero Second Law of Motion ( m = F/a) lead to equation of
force which supports the perception of force and motion in pre-Galileo’s or Aristotle’s days.
1.0 Einstein’s equation of Static Universe and Newton’s equation of inertial mass (Second Law of Motion)
involve division by zero.
Einstein (1879-1955) in 1917 in his research paper proposed a model of Static Universe introduced Cosmological
Constant. Alexander Freidman a Russian cosmologist after five years found that under certain condition Einstein’s
equation involve division by zero, which is not permissible. George Gamow (1904-1968) Russian-born American
nuclear physicist and cosmologist remarked that "it is well known to students of high school algebra" that division
by zero is not valid; and Einstein admitted it as the biggest blunder of his life [1].
Contrary to prevalent views continuing over nearly 2,000 years, Galileo argued that in case all the resistive forces
(atmospheric, frictional and gravitational etc.) are precisely eliminated (true under hypothetical conditions only)
then body once set in motion will maintain its state of perpetual uniform motion ( if body once set in motion). It
must be noted that nothing was known about Gravitation (theoretically this force extends up to infinity) in Galileo’s
time otherwise his hypothesis may have been different. Galileo also developed concept of acceleration and
formulated various kinematical equations for uniformly accelerated motion, thus acceleration was the main term in
his interpretation. These equations were later obtained by method of calculus (discovered independently and
simultaneously by Leibnitz and Newton) also, using concept of constant acceleration.
Taking Galileo’s hypothesis as a basis Newton formulated Second law of motion or Axiom II as quoted in Book I
of the Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis in Latin ( first translation in English by done Andrew
Motte, 1729, two years after death of Newton) as
The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in
the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.
Thus Newton provided the mathematical basis for Galileo’s perception of uniformly accelerated motion [2, 3]. The
Second Law is called a basic law of motion as the First Law of motion can be obtained from it; and it defines
inertial mass (m) as ratio of net force (F) and acceleration (a) i.e.
m = F/a. = Ft / (v-u) (1)
where u is initial, v is final velocity and t is time. Then it was established that inertial and gravitational masses are
equivalent. The physical quantity acceleration was defined by Galileo before Newton (as the rate of change of
velocity); the denominator of Eq. (1) is often written as in disguised form i.e. as ‘a’ rather than in terms of
difference in velocities (v-u). Thus acceleration becomes zero if body moves with inform velocity or is at rest. Thus
the situation is precisely similar in Einstein’s Static Universe and Newton’s Second law of motion, regarding
occurrence of division by zero, in equations.
The second law is the real law of motion [3] as first law can be obtained from it. Purposely we quote Resnick and
Halliday [3] as if F =0, then a =0.
In other words if net force on body is zero, then acceleration of body is also zero. Therefore in absence of
impressed or resultant force (F=0) the body will move with constant velocity (a=0) or remains at rest, which is first
law of motion. Now what is the value of inertial mass under this condition (F = 0, a = 0) i.e. when second law of
motion reduces to the first law. Obviously undefined
M = F /a = 0/0.
It is completely meaningless, in this case not only denominator but numerator also becomes zero. It implies that
under this condition (i.e. when Newton’s second law of motion reduces to first law), the Eq. (1) i.e. m = F/a is not
applicable as it gives value of mass (has definite dimensions and units of mass) as undefined. In this case F =ma
implies 0 = 0, which is without dimensions, units and have zero magnitude; hence gives no physical information
which is inherent characteristic or prerequisite of equation [3, 4].
2.0 Effects of division by zero in classical mechanics
Thus there is a precise similarity between Einstein’s equations regarding Static Universe and Newton’s laws of
motion (calculation of inertial mass), as far as division by zero is concerned. Realizing the limitations Einstein
withdrew his arguments in 1931 and theory of expanding universe was accepted, keeping aside the theory of
static universe. Likewise in view of this limitation of F =ma another equation of force has been proposed by author
[5] in as
F =A m(u+v)S/t (2)
where, F is net or resultant or impressed force which causes displacement S is distance traveled. And additional
term ‘A’, which is used to remove the sign of proportionality, has nature like Hubble’s constant or like coefficient of
thermal conductivity or coefficient of viscosity etc). Their magnitudes are determined experimentally e.g. Hubble’s
constant {50 to 80 kilometres per second-Mega parsec (Mpc)} or coefficient of viscosity (1.05× 10-3 poise to 19.2×
10-6 poise) or co-efficient of thermal conductivity (0.02Wm-1K
-1 to 400 Wm-1K
-1)
.
The interpretation of Eq. (2) is revival of concepts or perceptions of force propagated by Aristotle and others for
system in which resistive forces are present i.e. practical system. It consistent with existent concepts in antiquity,
Eq. (2) implies that force is always required for movement of body, in this case resistive force ( regarded as null
by Galileo for hypothetical system) is the main factor. This doctrine was taught for over two thousand years or
more, as it too found immediate experimental support, and have even now in countless cases. Galileo put forth
that in a medium devoid of resistive forces (frictional, atmospheric and gravitation), body once set in motion will
keep on moving with uniform velocity. Thus impact of concept of "division by zero" has not only resulted in
adopting the theory of Expanding Universe but in this case it also revives of pre-Galilean of Aristotelian perception
of motion of bodies on the basis of facts and logic.
The most practical aspect of this interpretation is that we should formulate a mathematical basis for practical or
most abundant cases; then interpretation must be provided for hypothetical system in limiting cases. For example,
we formulate an equation of force for systems most abundantly available in daily life i.e. when gravitational,
frictional and atmospheric forces etc are present. Then the same equation ( mathematical basis) should be used
to explain the hypothetical cases ( when gravitational, frictional and atmospheric forces etc are present). However
Galileo and Newton has established different formulations, they formulated mathematical basis for hypothetical
system ( devoid of gravitational, frictional and atmospheric forces etc)
Reference.
1. Gamow, G., My World Line (Viking, New York). p 44, 1970
2. Weinstock, R. American Jourmal pf physics 29 (10), 698-702 (1961).
3. Resnick, R. and D. Halliday, Physics Part I (Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi) Forty Second reprint 2, 45-46,
81-87
4. McNish A.G, Physics Today, Dimensions, Units, and Standards, 19-25, April 1957
5. A Sharma, Acta Ciencia Indica, Vol. XXXV P, No, 181 (1999) http://gsjournal.net/Science-Journals/Research%20Papers-Relativity%20Theory/Download/2084
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