By David
テクノロジーの背後には必ず「数学」の存在があり、数学の発展なくして現代の高度な社会は実現することはなかったと言っても過言ではありません。紀元前以来、生み出されてきた数々の定理・方程式の中から、数学者のイアン・スチュアート氏が著書「In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the World 」の中で「世界を変えた」とされる17の方程式を厳選しています。
Mathematical equations: 17 that changed the world.
http://www.slate.com/blogs/business_insider/2014/03/12/mathematical_equations_17_that_changed_the_world.html
◆01：ピタゴラスの定理(三平方の定理)
「直角三角形の斜辺の2乗はその他の辺の2乗の和に等しい」という、幾何学の基礎を支える「ピタゴラスの定理」の存在によって、測量や航海技術が発達しました。
◆02：対数における真数の積と対数の和
指数と逆関数の関係にある「対数」は、巨大な数同士の積を身近な数で計算できるため、天体の軌道計算や計算尺など科学の急発展に貢献しました。
◆03：微分・積分
ニュートンによって確立された「微分積分学」は数学における解析学として一つの分野を与えられる存在ですが、ニュートンは、科学史上最高の論文と称される「プリンキピア」で「運動の法則」を解説するツールとして用いました。
◆04：万有引力
1687年、ニュートンはケプラーの法則に運動方程式を適用して「万有引力の法則」を公表しました。この法則を使えば、地球の質量も簡単に測定可能です。
◆05：複素数(虚数単位)
2乗すると「-1」になるという虚数単位ｉの考案によって実数概念を拡張する「複素数」が誕生、これにより今日の電磁気学・量子力学の発展が導かれました。
◆06：オイラーの多面体定理
多面体における頂点(V)・辺(E)・面(F)の関係について、「V-E+F=2」という関係(オイラーの多面体定理)をオイラーが発見。この発見が位相幾何学の始まりとされます。
◆07：正規分布(確率密度関数)
確率論や統計学で欠かせない「正規分布」は19世紀最大の数学者ガウスによって考案されました。
◆08：波動方程式
波動を理論的に取り扱うために、数学的な表現を与えるのが「波動方程式」で、波動方程式を解くために開発された解法は、他の微分方程式の理解への扉を開きました。
◆09：フーリエ変換
波動を正弦波などのよく知られる波形に分解・変換できるのが「フーリエ変換」で、身近なところでは、音楽CDにおける耳に聞こえない高周波音のカットや、CTスキャンなどの医療機器にも応用されています。
◆10：ナビエ-ストークス方程式
流体の運動を記述する「ナビエ-ストークス方程式(NS方程式)」は、流体力学で用いられる方程式です。なお、NS方程式は流体の運動など多くの現象を決定できると考えられますが、NS方程式を解くこと自体極めて難解なため解けるように条件を簡単化して得た近似解を代替して決定するのが一般的です。NS方程式の解法を見いだした人もしくは方程式が解けないことを証明した人にはクレイ数学研究所から100万ドルの賞金が与えられます。
◆11：マクスウェルの方程式
ニュートンの運動の法則・万有引力の法則が古典力学の基礎方程式と呼ばれるのに対して、古典電磁気学の基礎方程式と呼ばれるのが「マクスウェルの方程式」です。電場・磁場・磁束密度・電流密度の関係を4つの方程式で表しています。
◆12：熱力学第二法則(エントロピー増大則)
「熱力学第二法則」によって、エネルギーの移動方向とエネルギーの質が記述されることで、第二種永久機関が実現不可能であることが確定し、その後、熱力学が大きく発展することになりました。
◆13：特殊相対性理論(質量とエネルギーの等価性)
アインシュタインによって、エネルギーが質量と光の速度の2乗の積と等しいという「質量とエネルギーの等価性」が発見されました。この発見は、原子爆弾の開発に応用され、晩年、アインシュタインを悩ませることになります。
◆14：シュレディンガー方程式
「シュレディンガー方程式」は、量子力学(波動力学)における基礎方程式です。ミクロの世界を記述するシュレディンガー方程式は、半導体・レーザー・原子力発電などの技術に不可欠となっています。
◆15：情報理論
「起こる確率の小さい事象が起こったときに得られる情報量は大きい」という概念は直感的な情報概念と矛盾しません。例えば、「横綱・白鵬が負けた」という情報は、「白鵬が勝った」という情報よりも「情報量が多い」というのは理解しやすいところです。シャノンはこのような直感的な概念を数学的に表現する「情報理論」を考案して、平均情報量を熱力学にならって「エントロピー」と名付け情報源の不確かさを定量化しました。情報理論は、データ圧縮技術やネットワーク通信技術に応用されています。
◆16：カオス理論
「ブラジルでチョウが羽ばたくとテキサスで竜巻が起こる」というバタフライ効果は、極めて小さな差が無視できないほど大きな結果の差を生み出す現象を指す言葉ですが、このような予測できない複雑な現象を取り扱う理論は「カオス理論」として、気象予測や金融工学で応用されています。
◆17：ブラック-ショールズ方程式
「ブラック-ショールズ方程式」は、金融派生商品のヨーロピアン・オプションのプレミアムを計算できる理論として、現代金融工学の先駆けとなった方程式です。考案者の一人であるマイロン・ショールズ博士やFRBの元副議長デビット・マリンズ氏らが取締役として参加したヘッジファンドLong-Term Capital Management(LTCM)は、設立当初から12億5000万ドル(約1300億円)という史上最高額の資金を集め華々しく運用をスタートさせ、当初4年で投下資金を4倍増にし平均年間利回り40％を突破するなどの快進撃を続けましたが、ロシアのデフォルトに端を発する金融大混乱の中、1998年に破綻しました。http://gigazine.net/news/20140401-17-best-equation/
\documentclass[12pt]{article}
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\begin{document}
\title{\bf Announcement 293: Parallel lines on the Euclidean plane from the viewpoint of division by zero 1/0=0}
\author{{\it Institute of Reproducing Kernels}\\
Kawauchi-cho, 5-1648-16,\\
Kiryu 376-0041, Japan\\
\date{\today}
\maketitle
{\bf Abstract: } In this announcement, for its importance we would like to declare that any parallel lines have the common point $(0,0) $ in the sense of the division by zero. From this fact we have to change our basic idea for the Euclidean plane and we will see a new world for not only mathematics, but also the universe.
\bigskip
\section{Introduction}
%\label{sect1}
By a {\bf natural extension} of the fractions
\begin{equation}
\frac{b}{a}
\end{equation}
for any complex numbers $a$ and $b$, we found the simple and beautiful result, for any complex number $b$
\begin{equation}
\frac{b}{0}=0,
\end{equation}
incidentally in \cite{s} by the Tikhonov regularization for the Hadamard product inversions for matrices and we discussed their properties and gave several physical interpretations on the general fractions in \cite{kmsy} for the case of real numbers. The result is a very special case for general fractional functions in \cite{cs}.
The division by zero has a long and mysterious story over the world (see, for example, Google site with the division by zero) with its physical viewpoints since the document of zero in India on AD 628, however,
Sin-Ei, Takahasi (\cite{taka}) (see also \cite{kmsy}) established a simple and decisive interpretation (1.2) by analyzing the extensions of fractions and by showing the complete characterization for the property (1.2):
\bigskip
{\bf Proposition 1. }{\it Let F be a function from ${\bf C }\times {\bf C }$ to ${\bf C }$ satisfying
$$
F (b, a)F (c, d)= F (bc, ad)
$$
for all
$$
a, b, c, d \in {\bf C }
$$
and
$$
F (b, a) = \frac {b}{a }, \quad a, b \in {\bf C }, a \ne 0.
$$
Then, we obtain, for any $b \in {\bf C } $
$$
F (b, 0) = 0.
$$
}
\medskip
We thus should consider, for any complex number $b$, as (1.2);
that is, for the mapping
\begin{equation}
w = \frac{1}{z},
\end{equation}
the image of $z=0$ is $w=0$ ({\bf should be defined}). This fact seems to be a curious one in connection with our well-established popular image for the point at infinity on the Riemann sphere (\cite{ahlfors}). Therefore, the division by zero will give great impacts to complex analysis and to our ideas for the space and universe.
However, the division by zero (1.2) is now clear, indeed, for the introduction of (1.2), we have several independent approaches as in:
\medskip
1) by the generalization of the fractions by the Tikhonov regularization or by the Moore-Penrose generalized inverse,
\medskip
2) by the intuitive meaning of the fractions (division) by H. Michiwaki,
\medskip
3) by the unique extension of the fractions by S. Takahasi, as in the above,
\medskip
4) by the extension of the fundamental function $W = 1/z$ from ${\bf C} \setminus \{0\}$ into ${\bf C}$ such that $W =1/z$ is a one to one and onto mapping from $ {\bf C} \setminus \{0\} $ onto ${\bf C} \setminus \{0\}$ and the division by zero $1/0=0$ is a one to one and onto mapping extension of the function $W =1/z $ from ${\bf C}$ onto ${\bf C}$,
\medskip
and
\medskip
5) by considering the values of functions with the mean values of functions.
\medskip
Furthermore, in (\cite{msy}) we gave the results in order to show the reality of the division by zero in our world:
\medskip
\medskip
A) a field structure containing the division by zero --- the Yamada field ${\bf Y}$,
\medskip
B) by the gradient of the $y$ axis on the $(x,y)$ plane --- $\tan \frac{\pi}{2} =0$,
\medskip
C) by the reflection $1/\overline{z}$ of $z$ with respect to the unit circle with center at the origin on the complex $z$ plane --- the reflection point of zero is zero,
\medskip
and
\medskip
D) by considering rotation of a right circular cone having some very interesting
phenomenon from some practical and physical problem --- EM radius.
\medskip
See also \cite{bht} for the relationship between fields and the division by zero, and the importance of the division by zero for computer science. It seems that the relationship of the division by zero and field structures are abstract in their paper.
Meanwhile, J. P. Barukcic and I. Barukcic (\cite{bb}) discussed recently the relation between the division $0/0$ and special relative theory of Einstein.
Furthermore, Reis and Anderson (\cite{ra,ra2}) extends the system of the real numbers by defining division by zero.
Meanwhile, we should refer to up-to-date information:
{\it Riemann Hypothesis Addendum - Breakthrough
Kurt Arbenz
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272022137 Riemann Hypothesis Addendum - Breakthrough.}
\medskip
Here, we recall Albert Einstein's words on mathematics:
Blackholes are where God divided by zero.
I don’t believe in mathematics.
George Gamow (1904-1968) Russian-born American nuclear physicist and cosmologist remarked that "it is well known to students of high school algebra" that division by zero is not valid; and Einstein admitted it as {\bf the biggest blunder of his life} [1]：
1. Gamow, G., My World Line (Viking, New York). p 44, 1970.
For our results, see the survey style announcements 179,185,237,246, 247,250 and 252 of the Institute of Reproducing Kernels (\cite{ann179,ann185,ann237,ann246,ann247,ann250,ann252}).
At this moment, the following theorem may be looked as the fundamental theorem of the division by zero:
\bigskip
{\bf Theorem (\cite{mst}).} {\it Any analytic function takes a definite value at an isolated singular point }{\bf with a natural meaning.}
\bigskip
The following corollary shows how to determine the value of an analytic function at the singular point; that is, the value is determined from the regular part of the Laurent expansion:
\bigskip
{\bf Corollary.} {\it For an isolated singular point $a$ of an analytic function $f(z)$, we have the Cauchy integral formula
$$
f(a) = \frac{1}{2\pi i} \int_{\gamma} f(z) \frac{dz}{z - a},
$$
where the $\gamma$ is a rectifiable simple Jordan closed curve that surrounds one time the point $a$
on a regular region of the function $f(z)$.
}
\bigskip
The essential meaning of this theorem and corollary is given by that: the values of functions may be understood in the sense of the mean values of analytic functions.
\medskip
In this announcement, we will state the basic property of parallel lines by the division by zero on the Euclidean plane and we will be able to see that the division by zero introduces a new world and fundamental mathematics.
In particular, note that the concept of parallel lines is very important in the Euclidean plane and non-Euclidean geometry. The essential results may be stated as known since the discovery of the division by zero $z/0=0$. However, for importance, we would like to state clearly the details.
\section{The point at infinity}
We will be able to see the whole Euclidean plane by the stereographic projection into the Riemann sphere --- {\it We think that in the Euclidean plane, there does not exist the point at infinity}.
However, we can consider it as a limit like $\infty$. Recall the definition of $z \to \infty$ by $\epsilon$-$\delta$ logic; that is, $\lim_{z \to \infty} z = \infty$ if and only if for any large $M>0$, there exists a number $L>0$ such that for any z satisfying $L <|z|$, $M<|z|$. In this definition, the infinity $\infty$ does not appear.
{\it The infinity is not a number, but it is an ideal space point.}
The behavior of the space around the point at infinity may be considered by that around the origin by the linear transform $W = 1/z$(\cite{ahlfors}). We thus see that
\begin{equation}
\lim_{z \to \infty} z = \infty,
\end{equation}
however,
\begin{equation}
[z]_{z =\infty} =0,
\end{equation}
by the division by zero. The difference of (2.1) and (2.2) is very important as we see clearly by the function $1/z$ and the behavior at the origin. The limiting value to the origin and the value at the origin are different. For surprising results, we will state the property in the real space as follows:
\begin{equation}
\lim_{x\to +\infty} x =+\infty , \quad \lim_{x\to -\infty} x = -\infty,
\end{equation}
however,
\begin{equation}
[x]_{ +\infty } =0, \quad [x]_{ -\infty } =0.
\end{equation}
\section{Interpretation by analytic geometry}
We write lines by
\begin{equation}
L_k: a_k x + b_k y + c_k = 0, k=1,2.
\end{equation}
The common point is given by, if $a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1 \ne 0$; that is, the lines are not parallel
\begin{equation}
\left(\frac{b_1 c_2 - b_2 c_1}{a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1}, \frac{a_2 c_1 - a_1 c_2}{a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1}\right).
\end{equation}
By the division by zero, we can understand that if $a_1 b_2 - a_2 b_1 = 0$, then the commom point is always given by
\begin{equation}
(0,0),
\end{equation}
even the two lines are the same. This fact shows that the image of the Euclidean space in Section 2 is right.
\section{Remarks}
For a function
\begin{equation}
S(x,y) = a(x^2+y^2) + 2gx + 2fy + c,
\end{equation}
the radius $R$ of the circle $S(x,y) = 0$ is given by
\begin{equation}
R = \sqrt{\frac{g^2 +f^2 -ac}{a^2}}.
\end{equation}
If $a = 0$, then the area $\pi R^2$ of the circle is zero, by the division by zero; that is, the circle is line
(degenerate).
Here, note that by the Theorem, $R^2$ is zero for $a = 0$, but for (4.2) itself
\begin{equation}
R = \frac{-c}{2} \frac{1}{\sqrt{g^2 + f^2}}
\end{equation}
for $a=0$. However, this result will be nonsense, and so, in this case, we should consider $R$
as zero as $ 0^2 =0$. When we apply the division by zero to functions, we can consider, in general, many ways.
For example,
for the function $z/(z-1)$, when we insert $z=1$ in numerator and denominator, we have
\begin{equation}
\left[\frac{z}{z-1}\right]_{z = 1} = \frac{1}{0} =0.
\end{equation}
However, in the sense of the Theorem,
from the identity
\begin{equation}
\frac{z}{z-1} = \frac{1}{z-1} + 1,
\end{equation}
we have
\begin{equation}
\left[\frac{z}{z-1}\right]_{z = 1} = 1.
\end{equation}
By the Theorem, for analytic functions we can give uniquely determined values at isolated singular points, however, the values by means of the Laurent expansion are not always reasonable. We will need to consider many interpretations for reasonable values.
In addition, the center of the circle (4.3) is given by
\begin{equation}
\left( - \frac{g}{a},- \frac{f}{a}\right).
\end{equation}
Therefore, the center of a general line
\begin{equation}
2gx + 2fy + c=0
\end{equation}
may be considered as the origin $(0,0)$, by the division by zero.
We can see similarly the 3 dimensional versions.
\medskip
We consider the functions
\begin{equation}
S_j(x,y) = a_j(x^2+y^2) + 2g_jx + 2f_jy + c_j.
\end{equation}
The distance $d$ of the centers of the circles $S_1(x,y) =0$ and $S_2(x,y) =0$ is given by
\begin{equation}
d^2= \frac{g_1^2 + f_1^2}{a_1^2} - 2 \frac{g_1 g_2 + f_1 f_2}{a_1 a_2} + \frac{g_2^2 + f_2^2}{a_2^2}.
\end{equation}
If $a_1 =0$, then by the division by zero
\begin{equation}
d^2= \frac{g_2^2 + f_2^2}{a_2^2}.
\end{equation}
Then, $S_1(x,y) =0$ is a line and its center is the origin $(0,0)$.
\bigskip
\bibliographystyle{plain}
\begin{thebibliography}{10}
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L. V. Ahlfors, Complex Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966.
\bibitem{bb}
J. P. Barukcic and I. Barukcic, Anti Aristotle - The Division Of Zero By Zero,
ViXra.org (Friday, June 5, 2015)
© Ilija Barukčić, Jever, Germany. All rights reserved. Friday, June 5, 2015 20:44:59.
\bibitem{bht}
J. A. Bergstra, Y. Hirshfeld and J. V. Tucker,
Meadows and the equational specification of division (arXiv:0901.0823v1[math.RA] 7 Jan 2009).
\bibitem{cs}
L. P. Castro and S. Saitoh, Fractional functions and their representations, Complex Anal. Oper. Theory {\bf7} (2013), no. 4, 1049-1063.
\bibitem{kmsy}
M. Kuroda, H. Michiwaki, S. Saitoh, and M. Yamane,
New meanings of the division by zero and interpretations on $100/0=0$ and on $0/0=0$,
Int. J. Appl. Math. {\bf 27} (2014), no 2, pp. 191-198, DOI: 10.12732/ijam.v27i2.9.
\bibitem{msy}
H. Michiwaki, S. Saitoh, and M.Yamada,
Reality of the division by zero $z/0=0$. IJAPM International J. of Applied Physics and Math. 6(2015), 1--8. http://www.ijapm.org/show-63-504-1.html
\bibitem{mst}
H. Michiwaki, S. Saitoh and M. Takagi,
A new concept for the point at infinity and the division by zero z/0=0
(manuscript).
\bibitem{ra}
T. S. Reis and James A.D.W. Anderson,
Transdifferential and Transintegral Calculus,
Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science 2014 Vol I
WCECS 2014, 22-24 October, 2014, San Francisco, USA
\bibitem{ra2}
T. S. Reis and James A.D.W. Anderson,
Transreal Calculus,
IAENG International J. of Applied Math., 45: IJAM 45 1 06.
\bibitem{s}
S. Saitoh, Generalized inversions of Hadamard and tensor products for matrices, Advances in Linear Algebra \& Matrix Theory. {\bf 4} (2014), no. 2, 87--95. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ALAMT/
\bibitem{taka}
S.-E. Takahasi,
{On the identities $100/0=0$ and $ 0/0=0$.}
(note)
\bibitem{ttk}
S.-E. Takahasi, M. Tsukada and Y. Kobayashi, Classification of continuous fractional binary operations on the real and complex fields, Tokyo Journal of Mathematics, {\bf 38}(2015), no. 2, 369-380.
\bibitem{ann179}
Announcement 179 (2014.8.30): Division by zero is clear as z/0=0 and it is fundamental in mathematics.
\bibitem{ann185}
Announcement 185 (2014.10.22): The importance of the division by zero $z/0=0$.
\bibitem{ann237}
Announcement 237 (2015.6.18): A reality of the division by zero $z/0=0$ by geometrical optics.
\bibitem{ann246}
Announcement 246 (2015.9.17): An interpretation of the division by zero $1/0=0$ by the gradients of lines.
\bibitem{ann247}
Announcement 247 (2015.9.22): The gradient of y-axis is zero and $\tan (\pi/2) =0$ by the division by zero $1/0=0$.
\bibitem{ann250}
Announcement 250 (2015.10.20): What are numbers? - the Yamada field containing the division by zero $z/0=0$.
\bibitem{ann252}
Announcement 252 (2015.11.1): Circles and
curvature - an interpretation by Mr.
Hiroshi Michiwaki of the division by
zero $r/0 = 0$.
\bibitem{ann281}
Announcement 281(2016.2.1): The importance of the division by zero $z/0=0$.
\bibitem{ann282}
Announcement 282(2016.2.2): The Division by Zero $z/0=0$ on the Second Birthday.
\end{thebibliography}
\end{document}
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